Il recente Convegno, dedicato ai venti anni di ricerche archeologiche con campi scuola didattici dell’Ateneo bolognese a Suasa (1988-2008), ha rappresentato un momento importante di confronto e di sintesi per l’archeologia della valle del Cesano. Questo volume, che esce significativamente in concomitanza con il decennale degli scavi di Santa Maria in Portuno (2001-2010), ne raccoglie gli Atti e costituisce la prima esposizione preliminare dei risultati delle ultime campagne di scavo (1996-2009). I temi che emergono riguardano soprattutto l’età romana e il primo medioevo, come la questione della genesi di Suasa e del suo declino che portò a differenti forme di popolamento del territorio, di cui Santa Maria in Portuno fu uno dei nuovi poli, e costituiscono un confronto notevole per la storia dell’intera regione.
L'articolo presenta i primi risultati del progetto sulla necropoli picena Quagliotti-Davanzali di Numana. Lo studio si concentra sul processo di occupazione dell'area funeraria e sulle modalità di sepoltura, che variano nel tempo. La ritualità funeraria è analizzata considerando la composizione e l'associazione dei corredi. Questo approccio ha permesso di acquisire nuovi interessanti dati per la comprensione del ruolo che dovette occupare Numana nel Mar Adriatico.
To the East of Cagli, in the province of Pesaro and Urbino, in 2005 was observed for the first time many annular cropmark on the aerial photo of a flight of more than five years. In 2009, for the purposes of protection of the site, the "Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici delle Marche" entrusted to the authors the analysis of the aerial photographs, the mapping of the traces on the cartography and the direction of some early excavations. The study of the aerial photographies has allowed the discovery of a hydrographic situation more complex, partly different from the present, and also the presence of groups of annular cropmark into two other areas not far from the first identified. The excavation inside the two circles A and B, which have proved the ditches (and not the 'elf circles' or 'fairy circles' caused by mushrooms), revealed no graves that was expected, but in the first case the holes stake of a large rectangular hut with apse, dating from the early iron age and the seventh century BC, and in the second case the foundation of a square house, originally covered with coarse tiles and dated to the VI-V century BC. The complex and important settlement, to which to refer some tombs of IV century BC found in the past, was perhaps related to the place of worship evidenced by renowned votive deposit of bronzes of Coltona of Cagli.
The paper presents the results of the ongoing research in the Picenian and Roman necropolis of Contrada Nevola in Corinaldo, conducted by the University of Bologna in collaboration with SABAP AN and PU. The excavation campaigns, carried out in continuity from 2019 to 2021, provide new data both on the necropolis of the Orien-talizing Age (7th century BC), enriched with a new funerary circle with high-ranking grave goods, and on the burial ground of the middle imperial Roman Age, which has become more defined in terms of extension, chronology and tomb types. The new acquisitions always derive from the integrated investigations within the framework of the ArcheoNevola project and from a procedure of preventative archaeological assessment, on the background of a synergic collaboration between all the institutions involved. The picture that seems to emerge from the diachronic analysis of the context is that of an area that has maintained a funer-ary use for a long time, perhaps even with an important hiatus between the main phases of occupation, but certainly recog-nised and prolonged. The topographical position and the characteristics of the funerary landscape must have favoured the survival of the site, possibly also charged with ideological meanings and memory.
Magnetometry is one of the most efficient and successful methods of archaeological prospection. Drone-based prospecting is increasingly being used in many fields of remote sensing but with respect to magnetometry, with rather poor results. For magnetic surveys, drone prospecting comes with the problem that magnetic and mechanical disturbances originating from the aircraft decrease the quality of the measurements. Here we present the adaptation of a commercial three-axis fluxgate magnetometer setup, which can be suitable for archaeological prospection, after applying appropriate filter methods and minimising the flying altitude and speed. For approval of the system, we performed drone-based surveys in high spatial resolution (50 cm line spacing) at constant, ultra-low sensor altitudes of 45 ± 10 cm and 75 ± 10 cm. We chose an archaeological site from the roman period as survey site (3.8 ha), where high-quality ground-based caesium magnetometer data was available. This allows us to demonstrate the first detailed comparison of drone-based and ground-based magnetic survey data for archaeology. For further evaluation, the influence of the drone on the measurements is assessed, drift and sensor resolution checks are carried out, and suitable data filtering methods are evaluated. Our results show that we can detect main archaeological features such as ditches, pits, fireplaces and remnants of stone fundaments with the drone-based setup, which are the relevant structures for the majority of archaeological prospections worldwide. Further, we can prove that the data quality can significantly be increased by lowering the flight altitude and speed. We conclude that drone-based magnetometry serves above all to cover large and inaccessible areas in short time. Our findings are a first step towards the development of standards for drone-based archaeological prospection approaches.
This contribution concerns, in particular, the study of the two most important monuments of ancient Roman Lupiae: the amphitheater and the theater, whose remains, now incorporated in the modern urban fabric, can still be seen and visited only partially. Despite the evidence of the monumental ruins still visible, there is the impossibility for the visitor to perceive their actual size, both in plan and elevation. At the moment there are no information boards and didactic aids to understand the complete aspect of the two monuments how they could appear in ancient. The realization of accurate reconstructive proposals starting from the laser surveys, as well as the application of technologies that utilize Image-Based algorithms SfM (Structure from Motion), have been aimed at the realization of different outputs to facilitate the visit in situ of the two monuments, with different ways of reading. Applications of semi-AR in addition with stereoscopic narratives allow to understand the characteristics of architectural-construction not clearly understood, but rather to make readable reconstructions both within their original context, both superimposed over modern city. An approach useful to provide a sense of the scale of buildings. In this process of study, the contribution of 3D modeling software it is not confined to the pure generation and manipulation of polygons in the space, but it is crucial to facilitate the processes of interpretation.
Lo studio ricostruttivo di un monumento antico risente fortemente di lacune informative, errata trascrizione delle fonti, errata traduzione o peggio ancora, di interpretazioni soggettive che possono compromettere drasticamente il risultato finale, portando a ricostruzioni anche notevolmente diverse tra di loro. Questo lavoro vuole presentare i risultati di uno studio ricostruttivo condotto filologicamente su alcuni monumenti di Siracusa in età greca, cercando di evidenziare il contributo specifico dell'archeologia virtuale nei processi interpretativi, al fine di proporre una presentazione efficace rivolta ad un target specifico di turisti. Seguendo questo approccio sono stati ricostruiti il Tempio di Apollo, il complesso monumentale di piazza Duomo ed il Teatro greco, cercando di fornire output di visualizzazione che fossero adeguati ad una consultazione da smartphone e coerenti alle finalità generali del progetto "PON Energia Smart City". Questo progetto prevede un approccio "smant" alla visita di Siracusa, privilegiando principalmente logiche di fruizione efficiente on-site grazie all'adozione di tecnologie basate sulla Realtà Aumentata, la visione dei monumenti da punti inusuali e la visita virtuale multimodale dei punti di interesse. Emerge da questo studio la nuova fisionomia di quei monumenti che, per motivi diversi, sono stati rappresentati negli anni in forme e modi del tutto differnti, tali da rendere a volte irriconoscibili le diverse ricostruzioni dello stesso oggetto. Grazie alle tecnologie di restituzione 3D basate sull'immagine è stato possibile integrare le parti mancanti di alcuni elementi architettonici e scultorei che, ricollocati virtualmente nella posizione originaria, permettono una lettura dinamica che combina l'aspetto reale con quello virtuale.
The church of Santa Maria della Lizza is one of the most important examples of medieval architecture in the Salento Peninsula in south Italy. In order to understand the extension and layout of the crypts, integrated ground-penetrating radar (GPR) prospections and laser scanner surveys were undertaken in the church and in the surrounding areas. The analysis of the GPR measurements revealed many anomalies that could be ascribed to unknown structures (crypts), as well as other anomalies related to the old church. The GPR data were supported by the laser scanner data establishing the spatial relationship between the surface and the level below the church.
The Messapian necropolis of Monte D’Elia is related to one of the most important ancient settlements in the Salento Peninsula (in south Italy). In order to understand the extension and layout of this necropolis in the various periods of its use, a ground-penetrating radar (GPR) prospection was undertaken in some important sample areas by a team of the Institute for Archaeological and Monumental Heritage of the National Research Council of Italy. The analysis of the GPR measurements revealed many anomalies that could be ascribed to archaeological structures (tombs), as well as other anomalies of presumable natural origin or referable to modern features. The data collected were georeferenced in the digital archaeological map of the site and integrated with a virtual reconstruction of the surveyed area.
Three-dimensional (3D) artifact modeling is becoming an increasingly utilized tool in archaeology. In comparison with other methods of 3D scanning, photogrammetry has the benefits of being relatively inexpensive, mobile, and more adaptable for use in field conditions. As part of a larger project to document variability in lithic production systems across the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition in Western Europe, we developed a photography rig for the express purpose of systematically capturing images for the creation of 3D photogrammetric models. This low-cost rig greatly streamlines both the photo-taking and post-processing stages of model creation. Additional tips relating to the coating of difficult-to-capture objects with a mineral spray are also provided. Three-dimensional models of lithic cores from the Châtelperronian, Protoaurignacian, and Early Aurignacian levels of the site of Les Cottés (France) are presented as examples of the quality of model that can be produced using this system., Modelar artefactos en 3D se está convirtiendo en una de las herramientas más utilizadas en arqueología. En comparación con otros métodos de modelado en 3D, el registro de la fotogrametría tiene las ventajas de ser relativamente barato, móvil, y más adaptable para usar en condiciones de campo. Como parte de un proyecto para documentar la variabilidad en los sistemas de producción lítica a través de la transición del Paleolítico Medio al Paleolítico Superior en la Europa del Oeste, una plataforma de fotografía fue desarrollada con el propósito expreso de tomar fotografías para la creación de modelos fotogramétricos 3D. Esta plataforma de bajo coste agiliza en gran medida tanto la toma de fotografías como las etapas de post-procesamiento de la creación del modelo. También, se proporcionan consejos adicionales relativos al recubrimiento los objetos difíciles de capturar en un aerosol mineral. Los modelos 3D de los núcleos líticos de la Chatelperroniense, Protoauriñaciense, y los niveles del Auriñaciense antiguo del sítio de Les Cottés (Francia) se proporcionan como ejemplos de la calidad del modelo que se puede producir usando este sistema.
Photogrammetry provides an accessible, cost-effective means of creating a high-resolution, digital 3D record of archaeological artefacts. The methodology has been widely adopted, but a number of issues remain, especially in relation to model variability, and to misalignments that result in gaps in the models generated. Two new approaches are presented here that have been shown to increase standardisation during data capture and processing routines. This ensures that models are seamless and quantitatively accurate.
Techniques for the three-dimensional digitization of tangible heritage are continuously updated, as regards active and passive sensors, data acquisition approaches, implemented algorithms and employed computational systems. These developments enable higher automation and processing velocities, increased accuracy, and precision for digitizing heritage assets. For large-scale applications, as for investigations on ancient remains, heritage objects, or architectural details, scanning and image-based modeling approaches have prevailed, due to reduced costs and processing durations, fast acquisition, and the reproducibility of workflows. This paper presents an updated metric comparison of common heritage digitization approaches, providing a thorough examination of sensors, capturing workflows, processing parameters involved, metric and radiometric results produced. A variety of photogrammetric software were evaluated (both commercial and open sourced), as well as photo-capturing equipment of various characteristics and prices, and scanners employing different technologies. The experimentations were performed on case studies of different geometrical and surface characteristics to thoroughly assess the implemented three-dimensional modeling pipelines.
This paper focuses on the development of a procedure for 3D documentation of Cultural Heritage assets and describes all the steps from the 3D data acquisition of the real object, the post processing the raw data and finally the digital recording, documentation and virtual preservation of the 3D data. It will also describe the experiences, carried out during the digital process, of some virtual restoration cases.
Die Frage der Anbringung der Inschriften des Tempels von Lagina ist erst seit Neuestem wieder Gegenstand der epigraphischen Forschung. Aufgrund der neuen Bauuntersuchungen ist es jetzt möglich, den Ort einiger historisch bedeutender Inschriften zu bestimmen. Dies gilt besonders für das Senatus consultum des Jahres 81 v. Chr., das sog. Antendekret und einige der ältesten Priesterinschriften. Es kann nachgewiesen werden, dass der Senatsbeschluss auf der linken Außenwand des Pronaos und das Antendekret auf der Stirnseite der rechten Ante angebracht waren, während die Priesterinschriften – ausgehend von der Ante – die gesamte rechte Außenwand des Pronaos und der Cella bedeckten.
Digital imaging technologies have enhanced archaeological research and profoundly expanded the scale of the discipline’s potentialities. As illustrators and archaeologists move away from using hand-drawn images (of hand-held, real-life objects) to depict artifacts and other archaeological information, certain capabilities of the traditional illustrative process are lost. One such loss is the ability to present a complete and informed representation of an artifact free of the distortions and visual limitations that single-perspective (i.e., digital or photographic) imagery produces. This is accomplished by the illustrator through the unification of multiple views of the artifact from various perspectives into a single two-dimensional image that communicates to the viewer important attributes of the artifact, free of distortion and remaining true to the measured, analytical conventions of the illustrative process. Liberation from the single-viewpoint perspective was one of the fundamental elements of the Cubist movement. Traditional archaeological illustrators utilize Cubist principles to communicate visually to the viewer a complete, accurate, and undistorted package of information about an artifact. The supplanting of hand-drawn illustrations by digital images in today’s archaeological publications threatens to revert the visual representation of data back to uninformed, surficial “snapshots” of incomplete objects.
Photography and photogrammetry have recently become among the most widespread and preferred visualisation methods for the representation of small objects and artefacts. People want to see the past, not only know about it; and the ability to visualise objects into virtually realistic representations is fundamental for researchers, students and educators. Here, we present two new methods, the ‘Small Object and Artefact Photography’ (‘SOAP’) and the ‘High Resolution “DIY” Photogrammetry’ (‘HRP’) protocols. The ‘SOAP’ protocol involves the photographic application of modern digital techniques for the representation of any small object. The ‘HRP’ protocol involves the photographic capturing, digital reconstruction and three-dimensional representation of small objects. These protocols follow optimised step-by-step explanations for the production of high-resolution two- and three-dimensional object imaging, achievable with minimal practice and access to basic equipment and softwares. These methods were developed to allow anyone to easily and inexpensively produce high-quality images and models for any use, from simple graphic visualisations to complex analytical, statistical and spatial analyses.
Digital recording methods for analytical purposes in archaeology have since a few years entered a more mature phase, which includes the definition and standardisation of work processes and protocols, thus allowing the re-use of a given work routine by other research teams and colleagues. In this paper, we shortly describe the work done within the DISAPALE project and more specifically we focus on the usability of 3D models of lithic artefacts for basic typo-technological assessments. To do that, we asked two testers to independently perform a series of analysis, only based on the 3D models of selected artefacts and relying on open-source software, in conditions generally harder than the usual (where contextual information on the provenience of the artefacts or the chronological attribution are usually available). The obtained results – with the two testers able to remotely identify, measure and analyse most of the lithic artefacts – have shown the potential of a larger diffusion and circulation of 3D models, as well as their limits, especially when interacting with models alone.
Technological advancements have a great impact on the dissemination and understanding of the cultural heritage reality due to innovative techniques. These innovations are based on high-precision and high-resolution technologies that allow for the geometric documentation of any object within the fields of history and the arts. Through these techniques, new proposals may be studied and objects can be placed in any historical context. Three-dimensional (3D) digitization allows one to obtain a digital 3D model, which can be handled virtually and recreated at any historical period, enabling the conservation and safeguarding of cultural heritage. Society currently demands new visualization techniques that allow interacting with architectural and artistic heritage, which have been applied in numerous virtual reconstructions of historical sites or singular archaeological pieces. This project allowed us to geometrically document a reused piece with two surfaces (shield and columns) and a plaque of the city of Merida using a structured light scanner from a theoretical-practical perspective. The 3D virtual reconstruction of the pieces was accomplished within this study. The generation of QR codes enabled the interactive display of the heritage pieces. Likewise, a proposal was made to reuse the aforementioned pieces through virtual archaeology. The initial hypothesis is based on the possible existence of a Visigothic niche as an original form. This research reports significant advances in the conservation and exploitation of cultural heritage.
We report on the development of a computerized automatic system to illustrate complex archaeological objects. The illustrations are based on 3D scans of the artifacts. The 3D models can be automatically translated, by new algorithms specifically designed for this purpose, into 3D or 2D line drawings; into colored images that emphasize the salient shape attributes of the artifacts and of the 3D designs on them; and to images that enhance faint/eroded designs that are otherwise difficult to discern. These illustrations are intended to replace traditional, manual drawings, which are very expensive to produce and not accurate enough. Our illustrations also provide a better visualization tool than the 3D models themselves. Though 3D scanning already improves the visibility of objects and their features, it does not suffice for rapid visual recognition. Our system generates efficient, objective, accurate and simplified representations of complex objects and the designs on them from any number of required views.
Here, we present a new method to scan a large number of lithic artefacts using three-dimensional scanning technology. Despite the rising use of high-resolution 3D surface scanners in archaeological sciences, no virtual studies have focused on the 3D digitization and analysis of small lithic implements such as bladelets, microblades, and microflakes. This is mostly due to difficulties in creating reliable 3D meshes of these artefacts resulting from several inherent features (i.e., size, translucency, and acute edge angles), which compromise the efficiency of structured light or laser scanners and photogrammetry. Our new protocol StyroStone addresses this problem by proposing a step-by-step procedure relying on the use of micro-computed tomographic technology, which is able to capture the 3D shape of small lithic implements in high detail. We tested a system that enables us to scan hundreds of artefacts together at once within a single scanning session lasting a few hours. As also bigger lithic artefacts (i.e., blades) are present in our sample, this protocol is complemented by a short guide on how to effectively scan such artefacts using a structured light scanner (Artec Space Spider). Furthermore, we estimate the accuracy of our scanning protocol using principal component analysis of 3D Procrustes shape coordinates on a sample of meshes of bladelets obtained with both micro-computed tomography and another scanning device (i.e., Artec Micro). A comprehensive review on the use of 3D geometric morphometrics in lithic analysis and other computer-based approaches is provided in the introductory chapter to show the advantages of improving 3D scanning protocols and increasing the digitization of our prehistoric human heritage.
This paper presents a new rapid, low-cost method for the large-scale documentation of pottery sherds through simultaneous multiple 3D model capture using Structure from Motion (SfM). The method has great potential to enhance and replace time-consuming and expensive conventional approaches for pottery documentation, i.e., 2D photographs and drawing on paper with subsequent digitization of the drawings. To showcase the method’s effectiveness and applicability, a case study was developed in the context of an investigation of the Phoenician economy at the Lebanese site of Tell el-Burak, which is based on a large collection of amphora sherds. The same set of sherds were drawn by an experienced draftsperson and then documented through SfM using our new workflow to allow for a direct comparison. The results show that the new technique detailed here is accessible, more cost-effective, and allows for the documentation of ceramic data at a far-greater scale, while producing more consistent and reproducible results. We expect that these factors will enable excavators to greatly increase digital access to their material, which will significantly enhance its utility for subsequent research.
This open access book aims to provide an overview of state-of-the-art approaches to 3D documentation from a practical perspective and formulate the most important areas for future developments. Bringing together a wide range of case studies, examples of best practice approaches, workflows, and first attempts to establish sustainable solutions to pressing problems, this book offers readers current practical advice on how to approach 3D archaeology and cultural heritage. Divided into five parts, this book begins with an overview of 3D archaeology in its present state. It goes on to give insights into the development of the technology and recent cutting-edge applications. The next section identifies current challenges in 3D archaeology and then presents approaches and solutions for data management of a large number of 3D objects and ways to ensure sustainable solutions for the archiving of the produced data. This book will be of interest to researchers working in the fields of archaeology, heritage management, and digital humanities in general.
This article reports on the successful completion of a large-scale pilot project, where 3D scanning technology, and newly developed software to optimally identify the rotation axis of wheel-produced ceramics, were used as practical tools for pottery analysis. Approximately 1000 potsherds from several sites and periods were scanned, their axis of symmetry computed, and their mean profiles drawn. The variety of fragment shapes, sizes and surface properties enabled us to test the system for a large range of archaeologically relevant pottery types. The high rate of success of the system, its efficiency and its output in the form of accurate, print-quality profiles, encourage us to recommend this method as a practical and reliable tool in archaeological research.
Archaeologists strive to document the process of excavation and discovery as completely as possible. Over the past several decades archaeologists have incorporated a growing number of computerized techniques for documenting archaeological finds. Scanning is one such technique. There are a number of technologies that now allow archaeologists to scan structures, excavation surfaces and in situ artifacts to create high-resolution, 3D data sets. We report here on a trial application of one of these, a structured-light scanner, to create 3D representations of excavated surfaces and associated artifacts at two Middle Paleolithic sites in southwest France. In each instance, surfaces of approximately 2.5 m2 were scanned in approximately 1 day. The resulting data sets are very good representations of the originals in terms of colors and spatial details, and as such provided an important piece of archaeological documentation. To use this equipment successfully in the field, however, required solving a number of logistical issues, and the amount of time required to learn to use this equipment was significant. Once these issues are addressed, this technology is appropriate for documenting extraordinary, unique finds where time and costs are offset by the importance of good documentation.
Structured-light scanning is a fast and efficient technique for the acquisition of 3D point clouds. However, the extensive and daily application of this class of scanners can be challenging because of the technical know-how necessary to validate the low-cost instrumentation. This challenge is worth accepting because of the large amount of data that can be collected accurately with the aid of specific technical protocols. This work is a preliminary study of the development of an acquisition protocol for anthropological remains performing tests in two opposite and extreme contexts: one characterised by a dark environment and one located in an open area and characterised by a very bright environment. This second context showed the influence of sunlight in the acquisition process, resulting in a colourless point cloud. It is a first step towards the development of a technical protocol for the acquisition of anthropological remains, based on the research of limits and problems associated with an instrument.
While 3D rendering of archaeological features in the field is becoming a standard documentary procedure, in the case of objects it remains less well-integrated as a functional resource, when compared to conventional illustration and photography. This paper examines the current state of the art for 3D data workflows, as used in the study of material culture in archaeology. In doing so, we touch upon the historical-technological background of this mode of documentation and observe its current level of impact on what we may consider normal ways of interacting with archaeological assemblages. We underline how current data-management and production issues diminish potential interoperability across 3D model-making platforms and lead to an escalation in data-storage consumption.
Archaeologists can now collect an inordinate amount of 3D data. But are these 3D data sustainable? Are they being managed to make them accessible? The MayaArch3D Project researched and addressed these questions by applying best practices to build four prototype tools to store, manage, visualize, and analyze multi-resolution, geo-referenced 3D models in a web-based environment. While the technical aspects of these tools have been published, this position paper addresses a catch 22 that we, as archaeologists, encounter in the field of 3D archaeology – one that formed the initial impetus for the MayaArch3D Project: that is, while the quantity of 3D archaeological data is increasing, these data are not usually accessible. By researching and addressing 3D data integration and accessibility, we learned many lessons that group around four main issues: sensitivity/security, web-based dissemination, conveying uncertainty, and data storage/reuse/peer review. These are significant current challenges to making 3D archaeological data sustainable.
In recent years, three-dimensional (3D) scanning has become the main tool for recording, documenting, and preserving cultural heritage in the long term. It has become the “document” most in demand today by historians, curators, and art restorers to carry out their work based on a “digital twin,” that is, a totally reliable and accurate model of the object in question. Thanks to 3D scanning, we can preserve reliable models in digital format of the real state of our heritage, some of which are currently destroyed. The first step is to digitize our heritage with the highest possible quality and precision. To do this, it will be necessary to identify the most appropriate technique. In this article, we will show some of the main digitization techniques currently used in sculpture heritage and the workflows associated with them to obtain high-quality models. Finally, a complete comparative analysis will be made to show their main advantages and disadvantages.
The discovery of a Neolithic dolmen in Switzerland with inhumations, dating between 3500 and 3000 BCE, was an exceptional finding. To provide best conditions for subsequent studies on the archaeological remains our interdisciplinary team decided to apply 3D documentation. Depending on different factors, two scanning systems with four scanners and photogrammetry were applied and the obtained data was combined. Detailed excavation plans and simultaneously a reduction of excavation time without loss of information were the result. A virtual animation of the dolmen in its reconstructed ancient appearance combined with the context of the grave goods was created. The 3D documentation provided initial data for anthropological and paleogenetic analyses. The individuals buried in the dolmen might provide novel information to the Neolithic research of central Europe. Additionally, with the help of the 3D data, the dolmen was rebuilt to make this archaeological heritage accessible to the public.
Museums have an ethical code of research and education, and 3D imaging has great potential in helping to achieve some of these objectives by providing accurate replications without barriers to access. Digital and printed models may remove object authenticity, but they do provide direct encounters with heritage and archaeological science whilst preserving the archaeological record. To demonstrate the potential for 3D imaging in archaeology and public engagement, this paper investigated an Ox cranium used for target practice at Vindolanda, Northumberland, UK. Vindolanda is a World Heritage Site on the Frontiers of the Roman Empire, known for its exceptional preservation of artefacts. The trauma type, shaping, impact direction and mortem period were identified, followed by comparisons and physical fits with weaponry used by the military at Vindolanda. The digital and printed models provide effective tools for displaying this evidence within the context of Roman archery to the public. The cranium had evidence of repeated target practice from arrows and potentially lances. The fragmentation of the trauma was angled internally, showing that the arrows were aimed from the front and toward the facial area of the Ox. The high-precision of the archers had separated the lower right portion of the facial area from the rest of the cranium. Several arrowhead sites and two lance head sites overlapped with little additional destruction, showing that some weapons were removed and retargeted. These features provide supporting evidence of individuals in the Roman military at Vindolanda actively participating in high-level archery target practice. The success of this pilot study will be developed to produce 3D models of the crania recovered from Vindolanda for the public to directly interact with this complex, contextual information for deep and effective learning.
Archaeology has faced increased pressure to digitise collections and make artefacts available and accessible to a wider audience. 3D imaging involves producing a 3D digital or printed model of an object or site. 3D models have the potential to augment the traditional approaches to museum engagement whilst breaking down the barriers to access, whether through providing 3D printed proxies in museums or sharing digital models online. 3D imaging has clear value in archaeology and public engagement but there is no standardisation or accessible pipelines available for achieving professional 3D imaging output. There is very little consensus in 3D modelling and worldwide, digital collections are being created with no methodological consistency. This research observed each stage necessary for producing high-quality 3D models with structured light scanning (SLS) technology. SLS was effective on a range of textures that may be encountered in archaeological scenarios, although highly reflective objects, or pale objects with black areas, may fail to be captured even with an altered strategy. In order to make the 3D model most representative of the archaeological find, it is recommended that a range of scanner settings such as brightness or shutter speed are tested on the object before committing these settings to the rest of the scans. Generalised 3D scanning pipelines are provided to inform archaeological teams on a 3D digital and printing strategy.
